Dedicated to my friend and confessor Father Edward John, whose friendship over the years gave me invaluable support during a very difficult journey.
The “Hubble tension” is a discrepancy in the measurement of the rate of expansion of the space of the universe when measured in different ways and places. This discrepancy cannot be explained by standard physics. I propose that a new approach is needed. This new approach is based upon the concept of time contraction. Time contraction is the opposite of special relativity’s time dilation, and is manifested in nature as “dark energy”. With time contraction time moves at faster rates than normal time, mass is reduced, and length expands. This condition is not caused by velocities, as is the time dilation of special relativity, but instead, it is caused by reductions in mass brought about by variations in rates in expansion-contraction factors that define spacetime and mass-energy, according to my novel approach to the problem, as described in my paper EX-CON PHYSICS (www.richardquist.com)
Dark energy accelerates the rate at which time passes and effectively “inflates” C, the velocity of light. This inflated C then enables photons to move through space at faster rates without violating the restrictions that normally apply to C, since time contraction simply increases the rate that time passes. The fact that more time passes in a contracted time frame relative to a normal time frame results in a reduction in the time component, t, in equations that are applied to entities in a time contracted condition. With time accelerated space, energy and particles are able to shift positions in space faster than in normal space. This is exactly what is happening in regards to the accelerating expansion of the Universe that is detected today. According the Ex-Con approach this started when dark matter began converting to dark energy about 6 billion years ago. This caused a gradual acceleration in the rate at which time passes for the space of the Universe, resulting in a gradual increase in Hubbles constant to what it is now measured, 73 km/s/mega parsec. The reasons for this change are intrinsic to the structure of the universe when described with this approach.
A basic principle of expansion-contraction approach is that the expanding nature of the universe is not caused just by an expansion of the space of the universe, but also by a continual contracting of the size of Planck’s length, thus a contraction in the velocity of light with the passing of time. With this approach, one can say that the Planck’s length and the Universe began at a size on the order of about 10^30 larger than today’s Planck’s length, approximately 4.5 x10^-5 m. Time started when Planck’s length began to contract, first according to the equation C =Ci/t, with t being the amount of time since the beginning of time, C being the velocity of light at point (t) in time and Ci being the original velocity of light, approximately 4.5x10-5m. After the intense inflation event that occurred soon after the beginning of the universe, contraction rates changed, reflecting the equation C =[Ci/(t^1/2)], which now governs contraction.
To describe the relationship between the contraction of space and the movement of photons through space it is best first to describe the velocity of light in terms of our present understanding of the expansion of the universe. We can say that when D=Ct, where D is the radius of the universe, C is the speed of light, and (t) equals the amount of time since the beginning of the universe, from any particular point in the universe, when we look in any direction toward the periphery of the universe, there will be a point in space where that space will be measured to be moving away from our original point, at a velocity of C, the exact same speed that a photon separates from a matter source located at the original point in space. We can say when the photon is aimed in the direction of that spot at the periphery of the universe, the photon and the point in space near the periphery of the universe are motionless relative to each other, since they are both moving away from the same original propagation point at C. If we now say that the universe stops expanding, then the photon can be said to be moving toward that peripheral point at C. Also, the distance between the photon and the periphery of the universe can now be considered to be contracting toward that static peripheral point, at a rate of C. We can now say that the size of space and the velocity of light contract with time such that even though the universe is no longer actually expanding at C, it will appear to expand at C because of the contraction of space, and of C. I will note here that even though in this example the past is larger than the present, the representations of the past that exist in the present are also contracting, and at the same rate as the present frame. Thus whenever in time something exists, the present representation of that past existence will also have contracted to the same relative size as the reality of the present. This is why we don’t perceive obvious evidence of a larger past, and why the relativity principal of a constant velocity for light in all frames holds, for all “present” reference frame. Anything that represents a past reality continues to contract along wth the normal frame. With this view it can be said that photons moving at a velocity of C anywhere in the universe can be said to be contracting toward the periphery of the universe in the direction of motion at a velocity of C. Since space contracts, we can say that under these conditions it can be said that photons follow space as it contracts toward the outer reaches of the Universe.
Since there needs to be an opposite side of the base contraction point which a photon contracts toward, as mentioned earlier, we can say that as the photon contracts toward the original peripheral point at a rate of C, there will be another point which, starting at the original contraction point at the periphery, extends away from the original point in the same direction, at C. We can imagine this as the motion of a long, stiff board, with one end moving toward the original base point and the other moving away from that point in, the same direction, at C.
We can now create a hybrid version, comprised of the two examples given. With this hybrid version the universe actually expands at a rate of (t^1/2)C, while space also contracts toward the periphery of the universe at a rate determined by the contraction factor C= Ci/ (t^1/2), carrying along photons with it. The result is a universe that appears to expand at a rate of C but is actually expanding at a rate of only C/(t^1/2), while the contraction action of space, and of C, determined by the contraction factor (Ci/t^1/2), makes it appear that space is expanding at a rate of C.
To define matters position in space relative to free photons we simply add another contraction action that contracts photons positions away from the periphery of the universe and back toward the mass source position. Here we are adding another distinct contraction factor, not simply cancelling the expansions and contractions that are all ready occurring. The “stiff board” description above gives us an easy way to imagine this contraction-expansion. The board image just described will contract back toward the original point of contraction.
Photons in a matter state always act like photons as they follow their expansion-contraction path, whether free or part of a matter structure that contains the photons. In a matter state photons simply alter directions of motion over a short periods of time and distance, as defined by boundary conditions. The sizes of the volume in which the main activity of the photons occurs are defined by natural boundaries that have radii on the order of 4.5x10^-5m and less, each with different sized but exponentially related boundaries that define “realms of action”. These realms of action, under the size of approximately 4.5x10^-5m, become dominated by quantum interactions, these caused by expansion-contraction interference. With the time contraction concept, the Ex-Con approach can be used as a basis for a non-probabilistic quantum theory, as time contracted particles leap from position to position, with time contracted pilot particles telling the particle where to contract toward next. These pilot waves extend into the future, connecting the present to the future. This also solves the famous “double slit”experiment. Photon particles always have a time contracted field extending around them. The interference that is observed should be expected.
According to the ex-con approach, the universe began when a large sphere shaped vacuum the size of the universe collided with an expanding primordial substance, at a size of around 4.5 x ^-5m. (EX-CON PHYSICS copyrighted 2020). The collision created space that began to contract toward the center of a universe sized sphere that represents the expanding primordial substance. The contracting spherical void crashes into and penetrates the expanding primordial substance sphere from the outside, this producing internal pressure inside the sphere, eventually leading to the massive inflation event.
Space began to contract according to the equation C=C’/t, where C’= the velocity of light at the beginning of time. The great Inflation began at about 3 x 10^-36 secs after the beginning of time, and finished at about 2x10^-29 sec. The great inflation was caused by a massive conversion of dark matter to dark energy, producing a time contraction that expanded the universe by a factor of approximately 10^30 from a size of about 4.5x10^-5m to almost its present size. Remember though, Planck’s length at this time would have measured about (10^22) larger than today’s (1.61x10^-35)m, since, according to my approach, the void, began at about 10^30 larger than the original C’, and Planck’s length and the velocity of light will have contracted by a factor of about 1/10^8 by this time. Consequently, the Universe, while having an actual size close to today’s size, would be measured by an observer at that time to be only approximately 1x10^3m in size.
Here is an equation that defines the base radius of the Universe at any point in time after the great inflation event which occurred at about 3 x 10^-36 secs after the beginning of time, and lasted until about 2x10^-29 sec after the beginning.
[Ur((t+1)^1/2)(Urp) divided by (Tp^1/2)], where t = the amount of times since the beginning of time and Tp equals the present age of the Universe, and (Urp) is the present radius of the universe.
The extreme inflation’s rapid expansion needs to be averaged into what would be defined as the normal expansion, defined by the equation Ur=ct. This increases the Hubble Constant from 67 km/sec/mega parsec to 70 km/sec/mega parsec.
Extracting the concept of time contraction from special relativity is possible when one accepts that the spatial growth of the space of the universe has two distinct components, one expands the overall size of the universe, while the other contracts the internal size of space, as measured in terms of the speed of light. Consequently, when we say that the radius of the universe is expanding according to the equation Ud=C(t), where Ud equals the size of the universe at time (t), we can also say that this is equivalent to: Ud =C(t^1/2)(1/1/t^1/2)=C(t).
We can now say that the size of the universe does not simply expand with time, but instead, expands, while the size of space, and C, also contracts , resulting in a net increase in the apparent size of the Universe of C. I say apparent because in some cases time contraction can substitute for distance. It can describe greater rates of velocity without changing the distance parameter.
Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity revealed the relative nature of motion. Essentially, it says that when two matter objects are in motion relative to each other, and when an observer that is motionless relative to one of those objects measures the other object’s time component, it will be reduced relative to their own, this because of time dilation, which is a relative expansion in the duration of a unit of time for matter in motion as measured by a stationary observer. Experiments confirm this. The concept that I have introduced, time contraction, on the other hand, produces a reduction in the duration of a unit of time, and it reveals itself in quantum phenomena and dark matter and energy. Time contraction enables dark matter and energy to convert between energy and matter states without detection or direct interaction with normal matter and energy. It also enables particles to choose its future position, the position toward which it contracts. This contraction not only reveals a position chosen by the time contracted (accelerated) element of a mass particle, but it also defines the energy and momentum that is be measured at that time.
In my view, Special Relativity’s length contraction proves the concept that the velocity of light contracts with time. A deep dive into Special Relativity reveals that a time dilation of C effectively decreases the capacity of a light photon to move through space, by a factor 1/u, where u is the time dilation factor. This reduction is caused by a reduction in the time component, by a factor of (1/u), this because of the reduction in time passage that is associated with time dilation. This also reduces the expansion rate of spatial creation, by (1/u). This because in the Ex-Con approach velocity of light is dependent upon rates of spatial contraction and the amount of space that is contracting, so a reduction in total space reduces velocity of light.
With a close look we can see that the length contraction contracts lengths by a factor of 1/u, this producing shorter distances for photons to travel through in space, this necessary in order to maintain time synchronization with the normal non-dilated frame. This same time reduction also applies to the larger past frame that correlates the time dilation value, (1/u), so the frames larger size is reduced to the same sized space and velocity of light as the smaller present sized frame. The velocity of light and the size of the space of the past now equal that of the present. Remember, though, in regards to regular present space, length contraction also occurs. Consequently, length contraction is not just a contraction in length, it also represents the contraction of the velocity of light, from it’s past size to present size, demonstrating the truth that the velocity of light does contract with the passage of time.
The Ex-Con approach says that this occurs because dilation slows time, by a factor of u. Since, according to this approach, light velocity contracts with time, (u) can be correlated with a point in the past where Cp = (u)C, with (Cp) equal to size C at that point in the past. In the present frame time dilation produces a velocity of light that is, while not actually reduced but “effectively” reduced, by a factor of 1/u relative to a normal frame, and by a factor of 1/u^2 relative to the past frame that correlates with time dilation factor, this because of the time reduction and length contraction associated with dilation. The fact is length contraction actually compensates for this effectively lost velocity by reducing size of space through which photons must travel. Length and velocity of light contraction occur for a dilated frame in the context of a non-dilated frame because, according to the contraction hypothesis length and velocity are greater in the past, by a factor of u, the time dilation factor, so rates of contraction are greater. The measured velocity and contraction rates in a time dilated condition in a normal frame produce increases in rates of contraction for affected objects, bringing about a length contraction and a velocity reduction when observed from the context and perspective of a smaller normal frame’s time condition. This contraction of space also results in increased energy density, as indicted by the elevated energy needs for mass in motion. This reflects an increases in the rates of contraction and expansion and contraction for mass in motion, this due to the time dilation. Mass becomes more “anchored” to space-time the more its state is dilated.
It is also possible to describe the velocities of matter that put mass in a particular contraction state in terms of contraction toward the a photon’s position as it moves at a rate of C. We can “freeze” a time frame of the present by considering a slice of space (1)(C) in length. When a mass has a velocity, it is because its position has contracted toward the position photons will be traveling at C. If we say that matter’s positions contract toward the photon’s position such that the distance between the two positions becomes contracted by a factor of 1/(u^2), and also use the “stiff board” analogy introduced earlier, and say that while that mass is contracting toward the photon’s position, the stretch of space considered also slides, at a rate of C outward, then back, at C. This action changes the distance between matter’s position and a photon’s position so that the C/u^2 distance changes to a smaller 1-{[((u^2)-1)^1/2]}/2. This is because the contraction of the matter’s position by 1/u^2 produces a Log that is twice that of the Log of 1/u, and this causes the “sliding outward effect” described above. The slide back reduces the Log by half. These occur simultaneously, so the result is the correct observed velocity associated with each degree of time dilation, {[((u^2)-1)^1/2]}/u.
Interestingly, this application of the Ex-Con approach reveals the biggest reason the Ex-Con approach is superior to the conventional approach. For a Universe that expands in the conventual manner. The base equation describing that expansion, (Ur = Ct) produces a Riemann sum that grows to infinity when t grows to infinity, so is of essentially meaningless value. In my, approach the Riemann sums shrinks with time. As mentioned above, a contraction factor that contracts C according to the equation 1/t^2 produces a Riemann sum that is twice that of one with a contraction factor of 1/t. Accordingly, rates of 1/t^3 produces a Log three times the size, etc… The total space of the universe now can be described in terms of the Log it produces, and an infinite number of universes can be compressed into the space of single Universe. The is the Ex-Con version of the multi-verse.
Since time contraction is the inverse of time dilation, it says that time contracted conditions mean that Ea=(M/a)[(C^2)(a)(a), this equal to Ma(C^2), where Ea equal dark energy and Ma equals dark mass. This is because time contraction, by accelerating time, while not actually increasing C, effectively increases position change by a factor of (a), the time acceleration factor. Velocity expansion though is reduced by a factor of 1/a, since the velocity of light is shorter in the future, by a factor of 1/a, the expansion in spatial length caused by time acceleration makes the smaller speed of light of the future expand to equal the normal present frame’s speed of light.
Of course, centrally different between time dilation and time contraction is that, as time dilation increases mass increases, while with time contraction mass decreases as time contraction increases, this providing for a system of motion with perfect equilibrium. Particles essentially “skip over” space as they get lighter with increases in time contraction. These characteristics makes it a perfect system as a basis for a non-probabilistic quantum theory because it can predict where particles will be, without unaccountable observational interference affects.
Equations relevant to the “Hubble Tension” problem can be solved in a unique way, as shown earlier, since we now have a source of dark energy it converts from dark matter. To show this more clearly, assume that the universe expands at a rate of D=Ct. Time contraction of space effectively inflates the rate at which objects and photons move through space by inflating the size of space and of C, as defined by the size of C relative to the overall size of the universe. This reduces the amount of time necessary to cross a given distance of space, by a factor of (1/a) where (a) is the time acceleration factor. When we reduce the time component for objects moving through space that is time contracted by a factor of (1/a) we reveal that time contraction has effectively increased an objects ability to move through space faster, by a factor of (a).
As mentioned earlier, six billion years or so ago space began increasing its rate of expansion. According to the Ex-Con hypothesis this occurs because space reaches a size limit, a limit defined by the initial mega burst of inflation early in the universe. Reaching this limit produces a time contraction, caused by the imbalance in the expansion-contraction ratio that results from the restriction on expansion, this according to the time contraction principle that EX/CON =1 (Ex-Con Physics). When space can’t expand as necessary there will be a compensating increase in the rate of contraction of the size of internal space as measured by the speed of light relative to the overall size of the universe. Space can still expand at a constant rate by going through a series of mini expansion-contraction cycles. This way the universe inflates in small increments instead of a mega inflation like at the beginning.
The beauty of using time contraction to describe the increase in the rate of the expansion of the space is that it can enable us to describe a situation where a constant size for the Universe is maintained, even while there remains variations in the rate of expansion in the size of the space within the Universe. Growing the amount of measured space within the universe without increasing the actual size of the universe can be achieved by simply adding a super overall contraction which slides the new space back into the old pre-existing space. This creates two layers of space in the same space that don’t interact as you would expect because, according to the contraction hypothesis, the size of space is contracting with time, so each level of space, which we can referred to as “quantum levels”, have a different “range of sizes” relative to other levels. This “stacking “ of space not only allows us to define an infinite number of quantum levels of space, it explains dark matter as a form of dark energy. Dark matter is stacked dark energy, forming a counter weight “halo” around large gravitational bodies.
The largest filaments in the universe are actually these initial halos that have broken into pieces, producing large strands of space anchored by elevated levels of dark matter.
Appendix
Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity revealed the relative nature of motion. Essentially, it says that when two matter objects are in motion relative to each other, and when an observer that is motionless relative to one of those objects measures the other object’s time component, it will be reduced relative to their own, this because of time dilation, which is a relative expansion in the duration of a unit of time for matter in motion as measured by a stationary observer. Experiments confirm this. The concept that I have introduced, time contraction, on the other hand, produces a reduction in the duration of a unit of time, and it reveals itself in quantum phenomena and dark matter and energy. Time contraction enables dark matter and energy to convert between energy and matter states without detection or direct interaction with normal matter and energy. It also enables particles to choose its future position, the position toward which it contracts. This contraction not only reveals its position chosen by the time contracted (accelerated) element of a mass particle but it also defines the energy and momentum that is be measured at that time.
In regards to Quantum theory, the expansion-contraction hypothesis proposes that all mass and energy has a time contracted aspect to them, the time contracted expansion element, that tells the particle where to go, while normal and dilated conditions for that same particle define its rest mass and changes in mass due to motion. This can be represented by two concentric spheres that begin with the same length radius but which expand and contract out of phase and with inverted rates. Thus, when the expansion sphere expands by a factor of (a) for example, the contraction sphere contracts by a factor of (1/a). Each then switch directions, and functions the expansion sphere becomes the contraction sphere and vice-versa. However, the new contraction point, which determines position, need not be at the center of the sphere. It can be anywhere, as determined by the summations of the expansion-contraction factors. If you notice, at all times one or the other sphere is contracting or expanding, so at all times position and momentum are knowable quantities, which undermines the Heisenberg principle.
This is explained further in my paper “Philosophical Consequences of Ex-Con Physics”.
